1 Pedro

 

. Some MSS (A P vg and others) add to the simple ἐν καιρῷ, “when it is time,” the genitive ἐπισκοπῆς (i.e., “at the time of visitation”). Possibly this change was prompted by the ἐν ἡμέρᾳ ἐπισκοπῆς, “on the day of visitation,” in 2:12 (Metzger, Textual Commentary, 696), but more likely the memory of the phrase ἐν καιρῷ ἐπισκοπῆς αὐτῶν, “in the time of their visitation,” either in Jer 6:15 LXX or Wisd Sol 3:7 (both standing in contexts rich in parallels to 1 Peter) has been at work in the tradition (cf. also Isa 10:3; Jer 10:15; Wisd Sol 3:13; and see Comment on 2:12). In any case the shorter readong is to be preferred. It is unlikely that the majority of MSS, including the earliest and best (P72 and B), would have omitted ἐπισκοπῆς had it been original. b. A few MSS (including * have ἡμῶν, “us,” in place of ὑμῶν, “you,” a reading that may at first appear to be the more difficult one because of the ὑμῶν, “your,” in the preceding clause. The manuscript evidence, however, is too weak. The first person plural probably represents a scribal attempt to make Peter’s words of comfort more general in their application (cf. “from us” in 4:17). c. A number of ancient MSS (including P72 L Ψ, the OL versions and the vg) connect these imperatives to what follows with ὅτι (“because”). This could be another case in which ὅτι followed by ὁ caused textual confusion (cf. 4:17; 5:5), but it is more likely that the transition from the imperatives to a declarative sentence about the “opponent” seemed abrupt to scribes, and that the addition of ὅτι was a natural way of smoothing the connection. d. A very few MSS (including P72) add the definite article before διάβολος, “devil,” in order to make it clear that it is a title (“your opponent, the devil”) rather than simply an adjective (i.e., “your slanderous opponent”). This is undoubtedly the correct interpretation in any event, but the manuscript evidence is far from sufficient to consider the definite article original. e. There is great variation in the MSS. The reading τινα καταπιεῖν, “someone to devour,” is supported by c and (with certain slight variations) by * K P and others. Yet in the majority of MSS (including P72 A vg and others), the subjunctive καταπίῃ appears instead of the infinitive καταπιεῖν, evidently as a result of τινα being accented as an interrogative (τίνα: “seeking whom he might swallow”; see BDF §368). A few MSS (including B and Ψ) have the infinitive καταπιεῖν without any pronoun (i.e., simply, “seeking to swallow”). Despite the strong combined manuscript evidence for τινα (however accented), this short reading explains well the origin of the others. Possibly a scribe inserted τινα because of the harshness of καταπιεῖν without an object, and the other variants came into being because of uncertainty over how the added word should be accented and read (cf. Beare, 205). Another scenario (i.e., that τινα καταπιεῖν was original and that B omitted τινα either because of the same uncertainty or purely by accident) is also possible (cf. Metzger, Textual Comity, 696–97), but less likely in view of the awkwardness of the shorter reading. Hence the translation, “ready to swallow,” with “his prey” supplied. f. Some important MSS ( A B* and others) have ἐπιτελεῖσθε, so that the clause reads, “knowing that you are accomplishing the same kinds of suffering as your brotherhood in the world.” Although ἐπιτελεῖσθε can be simply a defective spelling for ἐπιτελεῖσθαι (BDF §25), the fact that certain late minuscule MSS that have this reading (e.g., 614, 630, 1505) also insert the customary ὅτι, “that,” after εἰδότες, “knowing” (cf. 1:18), shows that they were reading the form as a finite verb (cf. P72, ὅτι . . . ἐπιτελεῖται). The infinitive ἐπιτελεῖσθαι, the reading of the majority (including B2 P Ψ and all the Lat. and Syr. versions) is clearly to be preferred; the oldest examples of ἐπιτελεῖσθε ( A B* K) are probably defective spellings of the infinitive. g. The majority of MSS (including 2 A P Ψ) lack the definite article with “world” (i.e., ἐν κόσμῳ), while P72 * B and others retain it (i.e., ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ). The weight of the evidence favors the article. Possibly it was omitted because its presence heightened the mistaken impression that ὑμῶν, “your,” belonged with κόσμῳ, “world,” rather than with “brotherhood” (see BDF §284.1). h. The majority of MSS (including P72 A P Ψ OL versions and vg) add “Jesus,” but the shorter reading of and a few later witnesses (ἐν Χριστῷ; B adds the definite article) is preferable “in view of the tendency of scribes to add rather than omit sacred names” (Metzger, Textual Commentary, 697). i. The third of these verbs (σθενώσει) is omitted in some MSS (P72 and certain Lat. versions), and the fourth (θεμελιώσει) is omitted in others (including A B Ψ). These are probably accidental omissions due to the similar verb endings. Other textual traditions change one or more of the future indicatives to optatives (e.g., the majority of later MSS change “restore” to an optative, καταρτίσαι, and supply ὑμᾶς with it), but these are secondary stylistic modifications. j. The majority of MSS (including P) insert a reference to “glory” (ἡ δόξα) before “might” (τὸ κράτος), while others reverse the order. The uncertainty of the placement of σόξα, as well as the strong manuscript evidence for the shorter reading (P72 A B Ψ and others), strongly suggests that “might” alone is original and that “glory” was added with 4:11 in mind. k. A longer ending, “forever and ever” (with τῶν αἰώνων added), is found in the majority of MSS (including A P Ψ and the Lat. and Syr. versions), but these words (missing in P72 B and a few other MSS) are again probably a liturgical expansion prompted by 4:11. Form/Structure/Setting These six verses are most appropriately understood as Peter’s exposition of the text of Prov 3:34 LXX quoted in v 5b. James, in similar fashion, cites the same text in 4:6b and expounds it in 4:7–10. It is natural to explore the relationship between Peter’s use of the text and that of James. Is Peter dependent on James? James on Peter? Are both drawing on a common early Christian exegesis of Prov 3:34? Or do the two have only the text itself in common? Peter’s interpretation centers on ταπεινοῖς, “the humble,” from the quotation (cf. ταπεινώθητε, “humble yourselves,” v 6), and on ὁ θεός, “God,” supplied in v 5b as the subject of the quote (cf. vv 6–7, 10). In connection with this God-centered emphasis, however, Peter introduces as well a reference to “your opponent, the devil” (vv 8–9). It is not hard to see how the devil might have come into the picture on the basis of ὑπερηφάνοις, “the arrogant,” in the quotation. If Peter perceived “disobedient spirits” behind groups in the Roman Empire who unjustly slandered and accused Christian believers (cf. 3:19), it is not surprising that the devil is within his horizons as well. What is surprising is that the devil is mentioned only here in the entire epistle. The unspoken supposition of vv 8–9 is that believers will be able to “resist” the devil because God “opposes” both him and his proud cohorts. This is tacitly confirmed in v 10 without further mention of the devil. Peter is less interested in apocalyptic battles between God and Satan than in a simple affirmation of God’s sovereignty as a basis for quiet confidence and trust (cf. 4:19). James’s interpretation of Prov 3:34 LXX is slightly different. Already in 4:6a, he anticipates the phrase, “gives grace,” with which the quotation concludes. His exposition of the text in 4:7–10 exhibits the same God-centered quality as Peter’s. This is evident in vv 7a, 8a, and particularly in v 10, which concludes James’s exposition on much the same note with which Peter began his: “Humble yourselves before the Lord, and he will lift you up.” James also combines the notion of humbly submitting to God with that of resisting the devil (v 7b). The rest of James 4:7–10 (i.e., vv 8b–9), however, is quite different from 1 Peter. If it has anything to do with the Proverbs text at all, it is addressed to the “arrogant” and not to the “humble” (cf. James 5:1–6, and possibly the end of 5:6 in particular, “does he not oppose you?”; cf. Davids, 180). The main point of similarity between Peter and James is the close association between humble submission to God and successful resistance to the devil. There is little evidence here of a direct literary relationship between the two epistles, but it is possible to imagine as a common source a couplet (used perhaps in the instruction of new converts) similar in form and content to James 4:10 and 4:7b: a. “Humble yourselves before the Lord, and he will lift you up.” b. “Resist the devil, and he will flee from you.” With such a couplet (in addition to Prov 3:34) as their starting point, it is possible that James and Peter have constructed their respective sets of admonitions, each adapted to the author’s distinctive purpose. On such a hypothesis, James would have used (a) twice (4:7a, 10) as a frame for the whole, then completed the thought of (b) with a sequel (“Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you,” 4:8a), and finally supplied his own denunciatory material (4:8b–9) adapted to the broader context of 4:1–6 and 4:13—5:6. Peter would have led off in vv 6–7 with his own adaptation and expansion of (a), then made (b) the centerpiece (v 9a, “resist”) of a significant call to respond to the challenge of persecution (vv 8–9), and finally supplied vv 16–11 as a word of promise and praise. It is equally plausible, however, that James 4:7–10 and 1 Pet 5:6–11 are simply independent reflections on Prov 3:34 LXX, with no additional common source (for still another use of this text, cf. 1 Clem 30.1–3, where the word “arrogance” at the end of 30.1 leads into the quotation in 30.2, and the quotation’s statement that “God . . . gives grace” is picked up significantly in 30.3). There is no question that Peter draws on a variety of traditions in these verses, possibly including sayings of Jesus (in vv 6b, 7, and 8a) as well as early metaphorical descriptions of Christian life in the world as spiritual warfare (e.g., Eph 6:16–17, especially vv 10–11, 13; also 1 Thess 5:6–8). Selwyn assigns the material to a traditional “Persecution-Form” (439–58), but the very different emphases in James and 1 Clement suggest that the accent on persecution is Peter’s own contribution. Comment 6 Ταπεινώθητε οὖν ὑπὸ τὴν κραταιὰν χεῖρᾶ ἱέῦ θεοῦ, ἵνα ὑμὢς ὑψώσῃ ἐν καιρῷ, “So humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God, and when it is time he will lift you up.” The expression “they were humbled under their hands” is used negatively in Ps 105[106]:42 of being overthrown by enemies, but Peter uses it in a positive sense here of submission to God’s care and protection. The reference to God as τοῦ θεοῦ (with the definite article) recalls the ὁ θεός of v 5b (in the larger context, cf. v 2 and v 10). The particle οὖν “so” or “therefore,” introduces a conclusion to be drawn from the text just quoted: God “gives grace to the humble”; therefore “humble yourselves” before God (as well as each other: cf. v 5a). The use of the passive ταπεινώθητε, “humble yourselves,” as a middle is distinctive enough (here and in James 4:10) to lend some support to the notion that Peter and James may be drawing on a common source (see Form/Structure/Setting). More frequent is the active voice with the reflexive pronoun, ἑαυτόν, “oneself,” as in Phil 2:8, and in a Synoptic saying of Jesus to much the same effect as Peter’s statement here (Luke 14:11, 18:14: “For everyone who lifts himself up will be humbled, and everyone who humbles himself will be lifted up”; cf. Matt 23:12; also Matt 18:4). Although imperatives of ταπεινοῦν are rare, the LXX provides examples of both the aorist passive, as here (i.e., Gen 16:9; Jer 13:18), and the aorist active imperative, the latter with τὰς ψυχὰς ὑμῶν, “your souls,” rather than ἑαυτούς, “yourselves,” as object (i.e., Lev 16:29; cf. 16:31; 23:27, 32). Instead of simply “before God” (or “before the Lord,” cf. James 4:10), Peter adopts the biblical imagery of God’s “mighty hand,” a phrase used especially in connection with God’s deliverance of Israel from slavery in Egypt (in the Pentateuch alone, cf. Exod 3:19; 6:1, 13:3, 9, 14, 16; Deut 3:24; 4:34; 5:15; 6:21; 7:8, 19; 9:26, 29; 11:2; 26:8; 29:3; 34:12; on the “hand of God,” see further E. Lohse, TDNT 9:427). The adjective κραταιάν, “mighty,” anticipates κράτος, “might,” in Peter’s doxology in v 11 while echoing the same ascription in 4:11. The theme of humility, or humiliation, and exaltation is conspicuous in the OT (e.g., 1 Sam 2:7–8; Isa 1:25; 2:11; 40:4; Ezek 17:24; Job 5:11; Sir 7:11), in the Gospel tradition (not only Luke 14:11 and 18:14; Matt 18:4 and 23:12; but Luke 1:52), and elsewhere in early Christian literature (2 Cor 11:7; Phil 2:8–9; James 1:9, 4:10; cf. also 1 Clem 59.3). The coupling of an explicit or implicit command to humble oneself with an accompanying promise of divine exaltation is limited to this verse in 1 Peter, James 4:10, and the sayings of Jesus (cf. Goppelt, 337). It is quite possible that Peter’s language is formulated with the remembered teaching of Jesus in view (to say nothing of Jesus’ experience: cf. 3:18–22; also Phil 2:8). It is surprising that Gundry ignores this verse in building his case for Peter’s use of the Gospel tradition (Spicq, 44, mentions it only in passing). Whether Peter is aware of a particular saying of Jesus or not, it should be kept in mind that he is first of all interpreting a biblical text, and that the authority to which he here appeals rests in that text, not in the Jesus tradition (cf. Best, 107). The promise that “when it is time he will lift you up,” is therefore Peter’s application of the principle that God “gives grace to the humble” (v 5b). ἐν καιρῷ, “when it is time” (lit, “in a time”), can mean simply “the right time” in an indefinite sense (as in Matt 24:45). In the setting of 1 Peter, however, it corresponds to ἐν καιρῷ ἐσχάτῳ, “at the last day,” in 1:5b (καιρός, “[it is] time,” in 4:17 is different in that it is qualified by the infinitive, “to begin,” that immediately follows; see Comment). Peter has in mind the time “when Jesus Christ is revealed” (1:7, 13), or “the chief shepherd appears” (v 4), i.e., the “end of all things” (4:7; cf. BGD, 395.3). καιρός normally takes the definite article when used in this eschatological sense (e.g., Mark 13:33; Luke 21:8; Rev 1:3; 22:10), but not in prepositional phrases (cf., e.g., πρὸ καιροῦ, “before the time,” in Matt 8:29; 1 Cor 4:5, where the “time” is clearly eschatological; also perhaps ἄχρι καιροῦ, “until the time,” in Luke 4:13). This verse is given a martyrological interpretation in the late second-century epistle from the churches of Vienne and Lyons in Gaul to the churches of Asia and Phrygia, recorded in Eusebius, HE 5.1–3: “They [the martyrs] humbled themselves under the mighty hand, by which they have now been greatly lifted up” (5.2.5; the decisive καιρός is reinterpreted as “now,” the hour of the martyrs’ death). 7 μέριμναν ὑμῶν ἐπιρίψαντες ἐπʼ αὐτόν, ὅτι αὐτῷ μέλει περὶ ὑμῶν, “All your anxiety you may throw on him, for he cares about you.” ἐπιρίψαντες, “throw,” unlike many participles in 1 Peter, is not strictly imperatival in meaning (cf. Goppelt, 337; Kelly, 208). Peter’s imperatival participles are present rather than aorist (with only two possible exceptions, 1:13 and 2:1, where aorist participles stand first in the sentence). The participle ἐπιρίψαντες reinforces the command given in v 6a without adding a new command. Its effect is simply to define ταπεινώθητε, “humble yourselves,” as the equivalent of Peter’s advice to his readers in 4:19 to “entrust their lives to the faithful Creator in the doing of good” (cf. Kelly’s observation that the self-humbling of v 6a is explained here not as “negative self-abandonment or resignation,” but as “the positive entrusting of oneself and one’s troubles to God”). The thrust of the participle is not that the readers of the epistle are commanded to do this, but that in doing it they have the certainty that God cares for them and will not let them down. Although not itself imperatival, Peter’s warning against τὴν μέριμναν, “anxiety,” is derived from an imperative in Ps 54:23 [55:22] LXX; ἐπίρριψον ἐπὶ κύριον τὴν μέριμνάν σου, “Throw your anxiety on the Lord” (for other adaptations of this verse, cf. Herm Vis. 3.11.3; 4.2.4–5). Again there are parallels in thought with Jesus’ teaching: e.g., whole series of admonitions not to “worry” or “be anxious” (μεριμνᾶν) in Matt 6:25–34 and in Luke 12:22–32. Closer to Peter’s sphere of interest is Luke 12:11: “And when they bring you to the synagogues and the rulers and the authorities, do not be anxious (μὴ μεριμνήσητε) how or what you are to answer or what you are to say” (cf. 1 Pet 3:15; 4:14). Here too, as in v 6, the real source of Peter’s terminology is the biblical text and not the Jesus tradition. ὅτι αὐτῷ μέλει περὶ ὑμῶν, “for he cares about you” (lit. “it matters to him about you”). The impersonal verb μέλει is used of God’s universal care in Wisd Sol 12:13; Philo, Flacc 102; and Josephus, Ant. 7.45, and ironically of Greek gods in Eusebius, Praep. Ev. 5.34 (“what care do the ‘philanthropic’ gods have for men. . . . in comparison with their care for statues?”). Paul too uses it ironically, in 1 Cor 9:9, to shift attention from God’s care for oxen to his care for Christian believers. Peter’s interest is less in God’s universal care for the creation (even though he acknowledges God as “the faithful Creator,” 4:19), than in God’s special protecting care for those who believe in Christ and face suffering for his sake. Although none of the language comes from the Gospel tradition (with the possible exception of μέριμνα in the previous clause), the thought is very close to that of Jesus in Matt 6:25–34 (e.g., v 26, “Look at the birds of the air. . . . Are you not of more value than they?”; v 30, “But if God so clothes the grass of the field. . . . will he not much more clothe you?”) and Luke 12:22–32 (cf. vv 24, 28). 8 Νήψατε, γρηγορήσατε· ὁ ἀντίδικος ὑμῶν διάβολος ὡς λέων ὠρυόμενος περιπατεῖ ζητῶν καταπιεῖν “Pay attention! Wake up! Your opponent, the devil, is on the move like a roaring lion ready to swallow [his prey].” Peter has used the imperative νήψατε, “pay attention,” once before, in relation to prayer (4:7), and it is remotely possible that prayer is implied here as well, perhaps as an alternative to the “anxiety” mentioned in v 7 (cf. Phil 4:6: “Have no anxiety about anything [μηδὲν μεριμνᾶτε], but in everything with prayer and petition . . . make your requests known to God”). The verb γρηγορεῖν is also associated with prayer in the Gospel accounts of Jesus in Gethsemane (Mark 14:38//Matt 26:41) and in Col 4:2 (cf. Pss. Sol. 3.1–2). More likely, however, these strong imperatives are simply a call to the readers to prepare themselves in mind and spirit for decisive battle with their one great enemy, the devil (cf. 1:13, where the phrase νήφοντες τελείως, “with full attention,” further defined Peter’s call to “Gird yourselves for action . . . in your mind”; also the association of σωφρονήσατε, “prepare yourselves mentally,” with νήψατε in 4:7). The two aorist imperatives are both “ingressive” and “programmatic” in setting a new course of action once and for all (like ἐλπίσατε in 1:13; see BDF §337.2, and Comment on 1:13). γρηγορήσατε, “wake up,” should be distinguished from the more common γρηγορεῖτε, “stay awake,” of the Synoptic tradition (cf. Matt 24:42; 25:13; 26:38; 41; Mark 13:37; 14:34, 38; cf. Acts 20:31; 1 Cor 16:13; Did. 16.1; also γρηγορῶμεν, “let us stay awake,” in 1 Thess 5:6), while νήψατε, “pay attention,” has a different connotation from the νῆφε, “be steady” (RSV) of 2 Tim 4:5, or the νήφωμεν, “let us be sober,” of 1 Thess 5:6, 8 (cf. rather ἐκνήψατε δικαίως, “come to your right mind” [RSV] in 1 Cor 15:34). Although the two verbs are used together in 1 Thess 5:6, the closest parallel to Peter’s use of them is not in the NT but in the second-century epistle from the churches of Vienne and Lyons preserved by Eusebius (see above on v 6). The account refers to a woman named Biblis who had denied Christ under torture, and whom, therefore, “the devil thought that he had already swallowed up” (HE 5.1.25). She was then subjected to further torture to get her to denounce other Christians, but “once on the rack she came to her senses [ἀνένηψεν] and awoke [ἀνεγρηγόρησεν], as if from a deep sleep.” The story concludes that “from then on she confessed that she was a Christian, and was counted among the number of the martyrs” (5.1.26). ὁ ἀντίδικος ὑμῶν διάβολος, “your opponent, the devil.” Here alone in 1 Peter, opposition to the Christian movement is personified in a single “opponent,” clearly identified as “the devil.” Everywhere else in the epistle the opposition is plural: the “disobedient” of 2:7–8 and 4:17, the “Gentiles” of 2:12, “the foolish” in 2:15, the cruel masters of 2:18, the unbelieving husbands of 3:1, “those who denounce your good conduct” in 3:16, the “blasphemers” of 4:4b, the indefinite “they” in 3:14 and 4:14. ἀντίδικος, “opponent,” is first of all an antagonist in a lawsuit (BGD, 74; cf., e.g., Matt 5:25; Luke 12:58; 18:3), and Peter may have chosen the term because of the possibility of Christians facing formal charges in courts of law (see Comment on 4:15). The setting, however, is not judicial; the word is used here to mean “opponent” or “enemy” in a very general sense. διάβολος, “the devil,” refers consistently in the NT to Satan (Heb: , “accuser”), regarded in Christian tradition (and in the Judaism of Peter’s day) as the archenemy of God and the source of evil in the world. Only when used adjectivally does διάβολος have another meaning (i.e., “slanderous,” as in 1 Tim 3:11; 2 Tim 3:3; Titus 2:3; Pol. Phil. 5.2; cf. BGD, 182.1). Although it is theoretically possible to read διάβολος as an adjective here (“your slanderous opponent”), it is difficult to imagine who such an opponent might be other than “the devil.” The range of meaning for διάβολος, “the devil,” and ἀντίδικος, “opponent,” is quite similar. Just as “the devil,” originally (like the Hebrew equivalent, “Satan”) the slanderer or accuser in God’s court (e.g., Job 2:1; Zech 3:1–2; cf. Rev 12:9–10), became the enemy of God and humanity in the broadest possible sense, so ἀντίδικος, “opponent,” can have both a narrower and a broader meaning. If the devil is an accuser or a courtroom antagonist here, it is not in the court of heaven (as, e.g., in Rev 12:10), but before pagan magistrates—hardly his traditional role (although cf. Rev. 2:10). Actually, the scene Peter sketches in this verse and the next is not a courtroom proceeding at all whether on earth or in heaven—but a universal conflict between the devil and the people of God, with the whole world as its arena (cf. v 9b). ὡς λέων ὠρυόμενος, “like a roaring lion.” The apparent source of Peter’s imagery is a psalm in which Christians took considerable interest in connection with Jesus’ passion: i.e., Ps 21:14 [22:13] LXX, where the psalmist speaks of “fat bulls” who “opened their mouth against me, like a ravening and roaring lion” (ὡς λέων ὁ ἁρπάζων καὶ ὠρυόμενος; cf. Ezek 22:25). The lion, which in some traditions stands for the Jewish Messiah (cf. 4 Ezra 12:31–32) or even Jesus Christ (cf. Rev 5:5), in this psalm represents the enemies of God and of his people. When 2 Tim 4:17 attributes to Paul an allusion to another verse in the same psalm (“I was delivered from the lion’s mouth”; cf. Ps 21:22 [22:21]), it is possible (although not certain) that deliverance from physical death is in view, and it is natural to ask whether or not the same is true of 1 Peter. περιπατεῖ ζητῶν καταπιεῖν, “is on the move, ready to swallow [his prey].” The absolute use of the verb περιπατεῖν, “to be on the move” (literally, “to walk around,” BGD, 649.1a; then more generally “to walk,” 649.1c) vividly portrays a pacing hungry lion (cf. also Job 2:2, where Satan is said to have come “from going back and forth over the earth and walking up and down on it”). It Peter indeed has the language of the passion psalm in mind, then the participial phrase ζητῶν καταπιεῖν, “ready to swallow” (lit. “seeking to swallow”), interprets the ἁρπάζων, “ravening,” of Ps 21:14 [22:13]. καταπιεῖν, “to swallow” (lit. “drink down”), appears to be Peter’s own contribution to the ancient imagery, and raises the question of how he thought Christian believers might be “swallowed” by the devil. The lion in funerary and other ancient inscriptions often represented “the ravening power of death” (Horsley, 50–51), and the verb καταπιεῖν, “swallow,” reinforces that connotation (cf., e.g., the LXX of Num 16:30–33; 26:10; Pss 68:16 [69:15]; 123[124]:1–5; Prov 1:12; Hos 8:8; Jonah 2:1–7; Isa 25:8; in Christian literature the imagery of Isa 25:8 is sometimes reversed, as death itself is “swallowed” by life, or by Jesus’ resurrection: cf. 1 Cor 15:54; 2 Cor 5:4; Treat. Res. 45.14–23, and the scribal gloss at 1 Peter 3:22; see Form/Structure/Setting and Note i* on 3:18–22). Of particular interest (although the enemy is a dragon and not a lion) is Jer 28[51]:34 (“Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, has swallowed me [κατέπιεν], as a dragon he has filled his belly with my vitals”) and its sequel, v 44 (“and I will take vengeance on Babylon, and I will bring back out of her mouth what she has swallowed”). It is unlikely that Peter has this passage directly in mind, yet it illumines his argument, for two reasons: first, possibly, because of its mention of “Babylon” (cf. v 13, “The [congregation] in Babylon”); second, and more important, because of the apparent use of Jeremiah and of 1 Peter simultaneously in the epistle from the churches of Vienne and Lyons (Eusebius, HE 5.1–2). There the devil “thought that he had already swallowed” (καταπεπωκέναι) Biblis the martyr, and wanted “to condemn her through blasphemy as well” (5.1.25), but was thwarted when she “came to her senses” (ἀνένηψεν) and “awoke” (ἀνεγρηγόρησεν; see Comment above). The martyrs’ victory, the narrative concludes, “was this, that the beast [i.e., the devil] should be choked into throwing up alive those he earlier thought he had swallowed” (καταπεπωκέναι; HE 5.2.6). While the Jeremiah passage may have to do with deliverance from death, it is clear from this martyrological use of similar imagery that being “swallowed” by the devil refers not to physical death but to spiritual death, i.e., to renouncing one’s allegiance to Christ (a similar application to religious faithfulness can be seen in Joseph and Asenath 12.9, where Asenath says, “For behold, the ancient and savage lion pursues me closely and his children are the gods of the Egyptians . . . and their father the Devil tries to swallow me up [καταπιεῖν]”). There is every reason to believe that the same is true in 1 Peter (cf. Horsley, 51), for Peter’s consistent assumption is that physical death holds no fear for those who know they will “live before God in the Spirit” (4:6: cf. 1:3, 21). 9 ᾦ ἀντίστητε στερεοὶ τῇ πίστει εἰδότες τὰ αὐτὰ τῶν παθημάτων τῇ ἐν τῷ κόσμω ὑμῶν ἀδελφότητι ἐπιτελεῖσθαι, “Resist him, firm in faith, knowing that the same kinds of suffering are being accomplished in your brotherhood throughout the world.” To “resist” the devil is not the same as “resisting” human adversaries. Jesus, in fact, explicitly forbids the latter according to Matt 5:39a: “But I say to you not to resist the evil one” (μὴ ἀντιστῆναι τῷ πονηρῷ). That “the evil one” means a human being and not the devil is shown by the concrete examples that immediately follow (5:39b–42). There is no evidence that Peter, who knows portions of the Sermon on the Mount (cf., e.g., 2:19–20; 4:14), is reflecting on this passage in particular. Yet the tradition to which he does appeal, a tradition visible also in James 4:7 and Eph 6:11–13, makes it clear that the principle of “nonresistance,” whatever its merits in human encounters, did not extend to the devil or to spiritual warfare. An explicit distinction is drawn in Eph 6:12: “For our combat is not against flesh and blood, but against powers, against authorities, against the world rulers of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavens.” For Peter the distinction, although implicit, is no less real. Even though he perceives “disobedient spirits” (3:19) behind those in Roman society who reject and denounce the Christian message, he consistently urges “respect” and “deference” toward the human critics and oppressors. Not so in relation to the devil himself. The force of this distinction is to emphasize that the sphere of the devil’s attack is not “out there” in the threats and slanders of a hostile populace, but within the believer and the believing community. As in the case of Biblis the martyr, the issue of whether or not Christians will be “swallowed” by the devil is up to the Christians themselves. This means that the phrase, στερεοὶ τῇ πίστει, “firm in faith,” interprets ἀντίστητε, “resist.” To resist the devil is not to engage in hostile action against anyone, but to trust God (cf. 4:19; 5:6; James 4:7; also Best, 174). The imperatival force of ἀντίστητε carries over to the adjective στερεοί, “firm,” as well (as if to say “be firm”; cf. the imperatival adjectives in 3:8). The phrase στερεοὶ τῇ πίστει, “firm in faith,” recalls ἐστερεοῦντο τῇ πίστει, “they were strengthened in faith,” in Acts 16:5; for τῇ πίστει, “in faith,” as a dative of respect (BDF §197) in similar expressions, cf. Col 1:23; Ign. Eph. 10.2. “Faith” refers here to personal or communal commitment, just as in 1:5, 7, 9, 21, not to a body of doctrine or a formal system of belief (i.e., “the faith,” as, e.g., in Jude 3; cf. Selwyn, 238). The adjective στερεός, “hard,” usually had negative connotations when applied to people (i.e., “stubborn”; Selwyn, 238), but Peter may well be writing with the stone imagery of 2:4–8 still in mind, drawing from it the further implication of steadfastness or rocklike resolution (cf. the emphasis on ὁ πιστεύων, “the one who believes,” in 2:6–7). Selwyn (238) cites Isa 50:7: “I have set my face as a hard rock [ὡς στερεὰν πέτραν] and I know that I will not be put to shame” (οὐ μὴ αἰσχυνθῶ; cf. οὐ μὴ καταισχυνθῇ, “will not be put to shame” in Isa 28:16, cited in 1 Peter 2:6). Although Isa 50:7 is not among the texts to which Peter explicitly appeals (in contrast to Barn. 5.14; 6.3), it may well have contributed to early descriptions of “God’s firm foundation” laid in Jesus Christ (2 Tim 2:19), or (as here) to calls for Christian “steadfastness” (especially a call attributed to Πέτρος, the “rock”; see Introduction). εἰδότες, “knowing,” followed by the accusative and an infinitive is equivalent to εἰδότες ὅτι with an indicative (cf. Note f*; also 1:18), expressing indirect discourse: “knowing that the same kinds of suffering are accomplished” (for the construction, cf. Luke 4:41b; 1 Clem 43.6; 62.3; BDF §397.1). It is a matter of knowing that something is true (BGD, 555.1). If εἰδότες were understood as “knowing how” or “being able” to do something (BGD, 556.3), then the infinitive ἐπιτελεῖσθαι would have to be read as a middle rather than a passive: “knowing how to accomplish the same kinds of sufferings” (reading the accusative τὰ αὐτὰ as direct object; see Beare, 206). The difficulty with the second option is that it offers no explanation for the dative τῇ . . . ἀδελφότητι, “the brotherhood,” that shortly follows (Beare is forced to admit that this dative is “unusual, standing in direct dependence on αὐτά”; i.e., yielding the translation “knowing how to accomplish the same kinds of sufferings as your brotherhood in the world”). The first option makes sense of “brotherhood” either as a dative of respect (“with regard to” or “in” your brotherhood: BDF §197), or as the indirect object of the verb ἐπιτελεῖσθαι, “accomplish” (BGD, 302.4: i.e., “laid upon” your brotherhood; the dative of agent, “by” your brotherhood [BDF §191], is also possible). The participle εἰδότες also shares somewhat in the imperatival character of what precedes it. In effect, Peter is saying “know this,” as he introduces an important piece of information (cf. 1:18–21, where εἰδότες introduces a traditional summary of redemption through Christ; also the expression, “knowing this first,” in 2 Peter 1:20; 3:3; cf. Luke 12:39; 2 Tim 3:1). The important information—perhaps the most important in the entire letter—is that the believers facing slander and persecution in the Asian provinces are not alone. Peter clearly affirms the solidarity of his own congregation (cf. v 13), and of the Christian brotherhood worldwide, with the distant congregations to which he writes. The phrase τὰ αὐτὰ τῶν παθημάτων, “the same kinds of suffering,” is less precise than τὰ αὐτὰ παθήματα, “the same sufferings” would have been (cf. 1 Thess 2:14). Parallels to this genitive construction are few, but cf. Thucydides 7.75.6, ἰσομοιρία τῶν κακῶν, “the equal share of troubles”; somewhat differently, τὰ ὑστερήματα τῶν θλίψεων, “what is lacking of the tribulations [of Christ],” Col 1:24. It is a partitive genitive (BDF §164.1: “strictly speaking incorrect”), allowing for the recognition that every experience of suffering is unique. In no one incident or series of incidents are the “sufferings of Christ” in which his people share (4:13; cf. 1:11, 5:1) ever “accomplished” or exhausted, but only in the cumulative experience of the worldwide “brotherhood.” τὰ αὐτά, “the same kinds,” are viewed as more or less equivalent portions of the whole. τῇ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ ὑμῶν ἀδελφότητι, “in your brotherhood throughout the world.” For “brotherhood,” cf. 2:17; also “brotherly affection” in 1:22 and 3:8. Only here is Peter explicit about the geographical extent of the “brotherhood.” The meaning of ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ is not simply that the brotherhood is “in the world” (where else would it be?), but that it is spread throughout the world (cf. διασπορᾶς, “scattered,” in 1:1). Despite the word order, ὑμῶν, “your,” must be taken with “brotherhood,” and not with “world.” Peter could have omitted ὑμῶν altogether (as in 2:17) without changing the sense, but he has been consistent from v 6 on in personalizing his commands (i.e., ὑμᾶς in v 6; ὑμῶν twice in v 7, ὑμῶν in v 8), and he is simply maintaining his use of the personal pronoun to the end of the sequence. κόσμος, “world,” probably has no connotation here of an evil order opposed to God (as, e.g., in John 8:23; 15:18–19; 17:9, 16; 18:36; 1 John 2:15–17; 5:19; 1 Cor 3:19; Gal 6:14). It is simply (like its synonym οἰκουμένη) the inhabited earth, as in John 1:10a; 9:5; 17:11; 1 Cor 14:10; 1 Tim 3:16 (cf. “the whole world” in Matt 4:8; Mark 14:9; Rom 1:8; 2 Macc 3:12). ἐπιτελεῖσθαι, “being accomplished,” is sometimes given the highly specialized meaning “to pay a tax” (thus, as a middle, “to pay the same tax of suffering,” or as a passive, “that the same tax of suffering is being paid”; cf. Xenophon, Mem. 4.8.8; see, e.g., Best, 175). This view, like the interpretation of τέλος as “wages” in 1:9 (see Comment) imports into the text a subtle metaphor quite uncharacteristic of an author who is always careful to alert his readers (e.g., with such words as ὡς) when introducing a metaphor. Nor is it likely that ἐπιτελεῖσθαι implies a profound notion of a fixed amount of suffering that must be “accomplished” (in the sense of fulfilled) before the end comes (as, e.g., in Col 1:24; cf. Rev 6:11). “Being accomplished” here means something more like “happening” or “taking place,” but Peter has chosen this verb (instead of γίνεσθαι or συμβαίνειν, as in 4:12) simply to include the notion, now well established by his argument, that the sufferings of Christian believers are not a matter of chance but a necessary part of God’s purpose. 10 ’Ο δὲ θεὸς πάσης χάριτος, ὁ καλέσας ὑμᾶς εἰς τὴν αἰώνιον αὐτοῦ δόξαν ἐν Χριστῷ, “But the God of all grace, who called you in Christ to his eternal glory.” Peter concludes the body of his epistle by applying directly to his readers the principle expressed in Prov 3:34 that God “gives grace to the humble” (v 5). God is designated, accordingly, as “the God of all grace” (cf. “God of all consolation” in 2 Cor 1:3). “All grace” corresponds in scope to the “diversified grace” of 4:10, encompassing not only the grace to come at the “revelation of Jesus Christ” (1:13; cf. 3:7), but the grace of “suffering for doing good” (2:19, 20) and the grace of mutual ministries in the worshiping congregations (4:10). The participial designation of God as ὁ καλέσας ὑμᾶς, “who called you,” parallels τοῦ . . . καλέσαντος, “of the One who called you,” in 2:9 (cf. 1:15); the simultaneous accent on past calling and future destiny echoes the thought of 2:9 as a whole (see Comment), although in somewhat more conventional terms. God’s “eternal glory” is of course the same future glory mentioned repeatedly in the epistle (1:7; 4:13; 5:1, 4). The absence of a definite article (τήν) before ἐν Χριστῷ, “in Christ,” tends to link the phrase with the verb “called” rather than with the noun “glory” (cf. Goppelt, 343; Kelly, 212). For Peter (as for Paul), “in Christ” is both the means of divine calling (as here), and the sphere of present Christian existence (as in v 14; cf. 3:16). ὀλίγον παθόντας, “after you have suffered a little.” ὀλίγον, “a little,” stands in contrast to αἰώνιον, “eternal,” in the preceding clause, just as παθόντας, “suffered,” stands in contrast to δόξα, “glory” (cf. 1:11; 4:13; 5:1; also Rom 8:18; 2 Cor 4:17). The whole phrase echoes the ὀλίγον ἄρτι . . . λυπηθέντες of 1:6. Christian suffering pales in comparison to the great vindication to come. αὐτὸς καταρτίθει, στηρίξει, σθενώσει, θεμελιώσει, “he will prepare, support, strengthen, and establish you.” The verse has the appearance of a benediction except that the verbs are not optatives (as, e.g., in Rom 15:13; 1 Thess 3:11–13; 5:23; 2 Thess 2:16–17; Heb 13:20–21), but future indicatives (cf. 2 Cor 13:11; Phil 4:9b; and especially Rom 16:20). Their cumulative effect is to reiterate and reinforce the aorist subjunctive ὑψώσῃ, “he will lift you up,” of v 6, and so to complete Peter’s interpretation of Prov 3:34 as cited in v 5. This, he concludes, is how God “gives grace to the humble.” The benediction turns out to be a promise of victory or vindication. The victory described is future and eschatological (cf. ἐν καιρῷ, “when it is time,” in v 6), yet because God is the God of “all grace,” the process by which it comes to realization is already underway in the ministries of believers to each other within and among their scattered congregations. αὐτός, “he,” is emphatic, as in several of Paul’s benedictions (1 Thess 3:11; 5:23; 2 Thess 2:16; 3:16). The four verbs are roughly synonymous. It is possible that the first of them, καταρτίσει, is preliminary to the others in implying restoration, or the setting right of unhappy circumstances (BGD, 417.1a). It can also have the more neutral sense of “prepare” (BGD, 417.1b; cf. the optative in a concluding benediction in Heb 13:21). Selwyn (240) prefers the former because of the immediately preceding reference to suffering. Yet the phrase ὀλίγον παθόντας, “after you have suffered a little,” is parenthetical. The actual context for καταρτίσει (and its three companion verbs) is the idea that God “called you in Christ to his eternal glory.” The emphatic αὐτός, “he,” keeps the focus of attention on God and the call of God, while the four parallel verbs unfold how this call comes to full realization. For στηρίξει, “support,” it is worth noting that Paul’s uses of the same verb, in contexts of pastoral care of ethical admonition, consider it sometimes as a work of God (1 Thess 3:13; 2 Thess 2:17; 3:3; Rom 16:25), sometimes as a responsibility of believers to each other (Rom 1:11; 1 Thess 3:2; cf. Acts 14:22). Although the verb is used in Luke 22:32 to refer specifically to Peter’s responsibility, there is no sure way to link its occurrence here as one of four similar verbs to any form of the Gospel tradition (on στηρίζειν and cognates in 2 Peter, see Bauckham, 197). σθενώσει, “strengthen,” is rare in Greek literature and without parallel in the LXX or NT (BGD, 749). Peter is multiplying synonyms, perhaps to reinforce the key phrase, στερεοὶ τῇ πίστει, “firm in faith,” in v 9 and to keep before his readers to the end of his epistle the implications of the three “stone” quotations in 2:6–8. θεμελιώσει, “establish,” recalls the saying of Jesus in Matt 7:25 (cf. Luke 6:48), where the phrase τεθεμελίωτο ἐπὶ τὴν πέτραν, “was established on the rock,” corresponds to the initial reference to a wise man who “built” (ᾠκοδόμησεν, 7:24) his house “on the rock.” In a similar, although far less direct, way Peter’s concluding promise θεμελιώσει, “he will establish,” corresponds to the οἰκοδομεῖσθε οἶκος πνευματικός, “you are being built as a spiritual house,” in 2:5 (cf. also, of course, Matt 16:18–19. The verb θεμελιοῦν (often perfect passive, as in Matt 7:25) finds its way into Christian moral instruction in Col 1:23; Eph 3:17; Herm Vis. 3.3.5; 3.13.4; 4.1.4; for the future indicative with God as subject, as here, cf. Herm Vis. 1.3.2). Conspicuously absent from these promises is any reference to God’s defeat of the devil (cf. v 8) as, e.g., in 2 Thess 3:3, where God will “support you [στηρίξει ὑμᾶς] and protect you from the Evil One,” or Rom 16:20 (“The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet”). The devil fades out of the picture as abruptly as he came into it. The reason is that the real issue in this passage is not warfare against the devil, but a firm and unshakable commitment to God and to the consequences of God’s call. The omission of ὑμᾶς, “you,” may be purely stylistic, but more likely it is Peter’s way of universalizing the promise: God will “prepare, support, strengthen, and establish” not only the readers of the epistle, but the entire “brotherhood throughout the world” (cf. v 9). 11 αὐτῷ τὸ κράτος εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας· ἀμήν, “To him belongs the might forever. Amen.” This is a shortened form of the doxology in 4:11, this time, directed to the “God of all grace” (v 10) rather than to Jesus Christ (see Comment on 4:11). Like the first doxology, this too is a statement of fact; the verb ἐστιν, explicit in 4:11, should be supplied here as well. Together, the two doxologies link God and Jesus Christ as the sole objects of Christian worship, but in keeping with the God-centeredness of the entire epistle, Peter ends on the note of praise to God. The shorter doxology is also climactic. τὸ κράτος, “might,” receives emphasis here by virtue of standing alone, and so echoes the reference to God’s “mighty hand” (τὴν κραταιὰν χεῖρα) in v 6. The effect is to guarantee still further the certainty of the deliverance promised in vv 6 and 10. Explanation The clearest promise of vindication in the entire epistle comes here, in Peter’s brief explanation of when and how God “gives grace to the humble” (v 5). In Peter’s vision, Christian believers are at war with “the devil,” their adversary and accuser. Like good soldiers they must “pay attention,” “wake up,” and “resist.” Yet to fight the devil is not to fight their human enemies, but to do good. The real enemy is not outside them, but in themselves. When they confront the devil’s fury in their accusers, Peter wants them to know they can never be “swallowed” (v 8) except at their own consent. Nothing their human enemies do can harm them (cf. 3:13) if they remain “firm in faith” under God’s “mighty hand.” In life or in death, God will establish them on a foundation as solid and secure as bedrock. Nor do they stand alone; they belong to a worldwide “brotherhood,” sharing in the same kinds of suffering and built on the same well-grounded hope. On the brotherhood’s behalf, Peter presumes to speak strong words of reassurance to the distant scattered congregations of Asia Minor.